Present Tendencies in the Society of Friends in America

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PRESENT TENDENCIES IN THE SOCIETY OF
FRIENDS IN AMERICA

ALLEN C. THOMAS
Haverford College, Pennsylvania

The Society of Friends, more generally known as Quakers, 1
is one of the few Protestant English-speaking religious organiza-
tions whose history goes back to the middle of the seventeenth
century. Only the Episcopalians, Baptists, Congregationalists,
and Presbyterians antedate them. Though George Fox,
the founder, had been preaching for some years, the year
1652 is commonly taken as the beginning of the organization,
and the year 1656 marks their entrance into America. Neither
Fox nor his immediate associates at first had any thought of
setting up a new denomination. They believed their message
was for all men. That it was incompatible with existing
church polity and practice was forced upon them, and, almost
in spite of themselves, a new religious body sprang up. Within
the lifetime of Fox, and largely his own work, a democratic
organization was instituted which, with but slight alteration
in details, has lasted till the present day.

During the more than two and one-half centuries of its
existence the society has passed through several trying periods,
the most serious of which was a separation in 1827-28,
which for a time threatened to wreck it. The causes of
this division were many, but the most obvious were matters
of organization and of doctrine. Though the basis of the
church polity is a pure democracy, a supplementary organi-
zation known as the Meeting of Ministers and Elders, in
later times the Meeting on Ministry and Oversight, claimed
and exercised far greater powers than had been customary

1 As the Orthodox comprise about four-fifths of all calling themselves Friends,
reference will be to them, unless otherwise stated.

3°

THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS IN AMERICA 31

in earlier days. This body was subordinate to the Yearly
Meeting, and at no time have its members been considered
a separate class. The minister or elder in the conduct of
church affairs in no respect differs from the other members.
Notwithstanding this well-known fact, the elders in particular
often made decisions which to many in the rank and file
seemed arbitrary and intolerant. In addition, and in con-
nection with this, doctrines claimed to be unscriptural and at
variance with the accepted doctrines of the Society were set
forth by certain ministers. The doctrines resembled those of
the Unitarians, and in some instances were distinctly rational-
istic. The result was a divided body, and weakness in the
promulgation of those teachings held in common. Later
a further but much smaller separation took place relating
rather to matters of practice than of doctrine. Thus, at the
middle of the nineteenth century, there were three bodies
— Orthodox, Hicksite, and Conservative 1 — each claiming the
name of Friends or Quakers. The Orthodox in essentials
agreed with the evangelical bodies; the Conservatives differed
from the Orthodox chiefly in practice; and the Hicksites or
Liberals, as they like to be called, laid no stress whatever on
doctrine. The Orthodox in 1828 were somewhat larger in
numbers than the Hicksites, and the Conservatives much
smaller than either. For some years all bodies showed a
steady decline in membership, the greatest being among the
Hicksites, a decline which has continued to the present time.
The Orthodox body, on the other hand, not only ceased to
decline, but began to grow, in some years making large acces-
sions to its numbers. 2 With slight exception these three
bodies had no official intercourse, and for many years there
was much antagonistic feeling. But with the passing away
of the leaders who had been active in the period of disruption,

1 Hicksite, so called from Elias Hicks, the most prominent leader among them;
Conservative, long called Wilburite, after John Wilbur, a prominent leader.

3 In 1918 the official statistics were: Orthodox, 97,275; Hicksites, 18,218; Con-
servatives (partly estimated), 3,648.

32 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

the bitterness gradually disappeared, and a feeling of friend-
liness has largely taken its place, especially in recent years.

While the Orthodox in essentials agree with the evangelical
bodies, there are certain great differences. The Friends from
the very first, and this is true of all Friends, have held that
there is a living, independent, personal relation to God — a
direct revelation of Himself to the individual — a light from
Himself " shining in the heart and conscience. " This doctrine
of the "inner light" or "inward light" was no new teaching,
but it had been, to a very great extent, obscured or lost sight
of. It meant that in every man there is that which answers
to God's message or call, and which, if followed, will lead to
Christ. This, the cardinal teaching of the Friends, calls for
a system of worship which will afford opportunity for indi-
vidual communion with God as well as for the exercise of
individual gifts. Hence the necessity for meeting in silence.
There also flowed from it the belief that if the soul has direct
communion with God, an outward communion is not only
unnecessary but will be likely to draw attention to the symbol
rather than to a personal spiritual experience. Again, as no
outward baptism can cleanse the soul, such is needless and
may be hurtful. 1 The teaching further implied that anyone,
man or woman, might be called of God to exercise the gift
of the ministry independently of scholastic training. Minis-
ters were to be recognized, not ordained. So there is no
ordination among the Friends to this day. There is no divi-
sion of clergy and laity— all members are upon the same plane.

It might naturally be supposed that this doctrine of the
"inward lighl " would lead to extravagances and error, and
the Friends have always recognized this danger. 2 But if
this is the light of Christ, as claimed, it will not lead to that

1 General William Booth, more than two centuries later, on practically the same
grounds, disused the ordinances in the Salvation Army.

3 This danger was realized very soon in the case of Nayler and of Perrot. The
former acknowledged his error and repented and was reinstated; the latter severed
his connection with the body.

THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS IN AMERICA 33

which is at variance or inconsistent with his teachings. Here
is the test to which the Friends have never hesitated to submit.

Another historic position, and the one most prominent in
the near past, is the attitude toward war. War to George Fox
and the early Quakers was absolutely incompatible with the
type of Christianity which they professed. Fox said to one
who wished him to enter the army, "I told him I lived in the
virtue of that life and power that took away the occasion for
all war. " And an official document of 1660 says:

We utterly deny all outward wars and strife and fightings with

outward weapons, for any end, or under any pretence whatever

The spirit of Christ .... will never lead us to fight and war against
any man with outward weapons, neither for the kingdom of Christ,
nor for the kingdoms of this world.

This statement is based on the belief that the Spirit of Christ
is a spirit of love, not one of hate and destruction. All official
declarations of the Society from that time to the present have
never varied from this position; it is the historic position of
the body.

It was held from the first that the outward life must conform
to the inward spiritual life; so there must be truth and justice
in all dealings with others. This requires that all statements
must be truthful, hence no oath is needful, and is contrary
to the words of Christ. Moreover, the use of an oath sets
up two standards. Justice in trade led to the establishment
of fixed prices for perhaps the first time in economic history.

Though the theory has always been that women were
exactly on an equality with men, and it has been carried out in
regard to the ministry, in church administration it was not
completely so till the nineteenth century.

For the first half-century the Friends were an active
missionary body, and their missionaries visited all parts of
Europe, America, the West Indies, and even Turkey. Large
sums for that age were raised to support this work, which
was carried on with enthusiasm and almost regardless of
difficulties, hardships, and sufferings. That results were not

34 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

permanent is chiefly, because these efforts were not systemati-
cally followed up, and partly because of the kind of govern-
ments existing on the Continent, which, based on force and
carried on under a system of militarism, were fatal to the exist-
ence of a body whose principles were based on love and whose'
adherents lived according to the principles of a Prince of Peace.

During the latter half of the eighteenth century the Society
sank into a condition of quietism, occupying itself in preserving
its "testimonies" rather than reaching out and continuing
the missionary efforts of earlier years.

But if the Friends were lacking in religious missionary
zeal, it was not so in practical matters, such as penal reform,
wise treatment of the insane, and just treatment of the Ameri-
can Indian, all of which claimed their close attention. Even
more than these was their attitude toward slavery. In 1688
some German Friends of Germantown, Pennsylvania, made
a protest against holding men in bondage, so far as known
the first official protest of any religious body on this subject.
About the middle of the eighteenth century John Woolman
became the apostle of freedom, and through his efforts and
those of others the conscience of Friends was so aroused
that by the close of the century slavery was driven out of
the Society, and thereafter no Friend could own a slave.
This action had far-reaching effects, for it led to the whole-
sale emigration of the Quakers from the slave states of Vir-
ginia and the Carolinas to the free soil of Ohio, Indiana, and
the Northwest, not only furnishing sturdy, independent, and
industrious citizens to these states, but exerting no small
influence on the Quaker body itself.

It was not till about thirty years or more after the troubles
of 1828 that the decline in membership was arrested in the
Orthodox body. In the country west of the Alleghanies the
Friends began to grow not only by the emigration just men-
tioned and by that from other eastern states, but by accessions
through request. The Society had again become an aggressive

THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS IN AMERICA 35

body. It was not long before the traditional dress of the
eighteenth century and the language began to be laid aside,
and the discipline considerably relaxed. The quietism of
the previous century had become an evangelistic spirit. This
led to some important changes in polity and practice.
Methods similar to those used in the revivals of other religious
bodies were employed, and in various ways new ideas and
practices came into being. Territories where Friends were
unknown were entered, and converts were made who had no
knowledge of Quaker doctrine or history. After conversion
these needed religious instruction. To meet this need, men
and women were appointed whose work closely resembled
that of the Methodist pastor, and in many places congregations
worshiped which could scarcely be distinguished from those
of other denominations. In fact, the chief difference was the
omission of the Lord's Supper and baptism. 1 Thus sprang up
what is known among the Friends as the "pastoral system."
It was quite evident to thoughtful Friends that a centri-
fugal force was at work, which, if not checked, would be disas-
trous to the body. After some preliminary effort, a general
conference representing all the Yearly Meetings 2 in America
but one, and those in Great Britain and Ireland, met at
Richmond, Indiana, in 1887. It was a conference for dis-
cussion only and was without power, but it was of great
value in bringing Friends, together. Its main visible work
was the preparation and issuing of a long and rather verbose
"Declaration of Faith." Another conference was held in
1892, at which the representation was in proportion to mem-
bership. The evident value of these conferences led to a
continuance in 1897, at which time the advantages of a closer
union were discussed, and means adopted to bring a tentative

1 It is not surprising that at one period a few Friends advocated the use of these.

2 A Yearly Meeting somewhat resembles a Methodist Conference. It is com-
posed of a number of subordinate meetings. A representative gathering which is the
legislative body for the group and also a final court of appeal meets annually. The
bounds of a Yearly Meeting are mainly on geographical lines, though not wholly so.

36 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

plan of union before a conference in 1902. To this conference
a plan of union with a constitution and practically uniform
discipline was presented with the indorsement of a large
majority of the Yearly Meetings of America. Through this
action the Five Years' Meeting of the Friends in America
came into being, and it has held quinquennial sessions since
1902. There can be little doubt that this is the most important
event in the history of American Quakerism, for through it
what had been practically a congregational union became an
organized church. 1

The plan of the Five Years' Meeting is that of a federal
union, which in principle closely resembles the Articles of
Confederation of the United States which preceded the
Constitution. Under it each Yearly Meeting is practically
independent as to local interests but unites, by means of a
quinquennial proportional representative body and various
standing boards, with the other members of the union in
matters of common interest, such as evangelistic work, foreign
and home missions, Bible schools, peace, education, young
people's activities, legislation, publication, and the like. This
union has worked fully as well as was expected by most of its
advocates, and, while during the eighteen years of its existence
there has been some friction, and two Yearly Meetings remain
outside, there can be no doubt that it has brought Friends
closer together, 2 and that by united action church activities
have been better organized and better work has been done. 3
This is particularly true of the foreign-mission work, which

1 It was not the first time such an effort had been made, for the records show that
Philadelphia Yearly Meeting in 1683, probably at the suggestion of William Penn,
proposed to hold a general meeting of Friends from New England to Carolina.
It was probably owing to geographical conditions and difficulties of transportation
that the scheme was not carried out.

2 Ohio Yearly Meeting remains apart chiefly on the ground of doctrine, claiming
that the doctrines upheld are too liberal; and Philadelphia Yearly Meeting chiefly
on the ground of preserving full, independent action.

J The Yearly Meetings composing the Five Years' Meeting are New England,
New York, Baltimore, North Carolina, Wilmington (Ohio), Indiana, Western (Indiana),
Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, California, Oregon, and Canada.

THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS IN AMERICA 37

has been brought under the direction and oversight of the
American Friends' Board of Foreign Missions, thus obviating
duplication of officers, and greatly aiding in the assignment of
missionaries and in the economic and "wise administration of
the work. 1

Another striking feature in the polity of the Friends since
191 2 has been the Young Friends' Movement. This is an
organized association of the younger members for the purpose of
deepening their own spiritual life and supporting and extending
the activities of the body at large. This is done by local
associations, study-groups, country-wide conferences, and per-
sonal efforts in such fields as seem to call for work.

Besides the Boards, the Five Years' Meeting has a general
secretary with an office at Richmond, Indiana, whose duties
are the collection and dissemination of intelligence of value
to the body, collection and tabulation of statistics, aiding
in the meetings and work of the Boards and Committees,
serving as a medium of communication between needy fields
and available workers or committees, and in every way fur-
thering the interests of the denomination.

One important matter remains to be dwelt upon. With
some notable exceptions, the meetings of the Friends have
adopted, though not officially, some form of a pastoral system. 2
It should be clearly understood, however, that this does not
mean that every individual meeting has a pastor; very far
from it, but the tendency has been toward such a condition,
particularly in the West where there has been no Quaker
background.

1 The fields of labor of the Five Years' Meeting are Cuba, Mexico, Jamaica,
Palestine, and British East Africa. The amounts collected were, in 1905, $6,953;
in 1917-19 (six months) $150,155 (a special effort). Besides these missions Phila-
delphia Friends maintain flourishing missions in Japan; Ohio Yearly Meeting missions
in India and China; and California Yearly Meeting missions in Alaska and Central
America.

2 This includes all the Yearly Meetings of the Five Years' Meeting (except Balti-
more Yearly Meeting), and Ohio Yearly Meeting; Philadelphia Yearly Meeting has
had neither pastors nor pastoral system.

38 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

Such in outline was the condition of the Friends in 1914
and recent years. Without this survey the present position
and outlook of the Quaker body could hardly be understood.
To the thoughtful Friend and one to whom the continuance
of the body on practically its old foundation was dear, it was
evident that an essential point in the situation was the meeting
for worship. If this was held according to a strict program,
it would be impossible for individual spiritual communion to
exist or for individual gifts in the ministry or exhortation or
vocal prayer to be exercised, and there could not be that
"liberty of prophesying" to gain which the early Friends had
suffered so much. That some sort of a pastoral system was
needed in many places few could gainsay. How could it be so
modified as not to conflict with historic Quaker teachings.
Though perhaps not put so bluntly as this, the problem was
in the minds of many, though not always acknowledged. It
was also evident that there was much dissatisfaction with
existing conditions, but no way of improving them was seen.
No definite plan of modification has yet been proposed, but
there is no doubt that at present there is an increasing desire
and effort to adjust the pastoral system to the fundamentals
of historic Quakerism, and this is true particularly of the
younger pastors. 1 The Friends had become alive to con-
temporary problems and to the fact that a church, in order to
continue, and to be effective, and to grow, must be aggressive.
The association in the Five Years' Meeting not only had enabled
better work to be done but also, and even more important,
had brought the members East and West into that closer
touch and better knowledge of each other without which it is
altogether unlikely the subsequent united work would have
been possible.

1 In some places the pastor is not necessarily a minister, but resembles the Young
Men's Christian Association Secretary, the effort being, especially in rural com-
munities, to make the meeting a center, not only of conversion, instruction, and
religious uplift, but also of social interests for the betterment of the neighbor-
hood.

THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS IN AMERICA 39

When the United States entered the Great War in 191 7
an unlooked-for condition presented itself to the Friends.
Since the close of the Civil War in 1865, the armies of the
United States had been composed wholly of volunteers. To
the Friends the matter of compulsory military service had
seemed a purely academic question, but now it loomed up as a
certainty. Like the British Parliament, the American Con-
gress recognized the existence of certain religious bodies
among whose historic doctrines was a conscientious objection
to war and military service, and, for the members of such,
provision was made for noncombatant service. But, less
liberal than the British Act, individuals not belonging to the
designated bodies, were ignored. 1

The drastic conscription laws which were enacted fell
heavily upon the Friends and the few small denominations
which shared their views regarding war. Whether the historic
position of the Society would be upheld was a question of
anxious interest. The individual answer was to be given by
young men, most of whom had never anticipated such a trial
of faith. Three classes were shown to exist: those who,
having no convictions against war, accepted military service;
those who refused military service but accepted some kind of
alternative service; and those who refused any compulsory
service whatever. This last class numbered very few; the
majority belonged to the middle class, though there was much
difference of opinion as to what kind of alternative service
could be accepted. The number of those entering the army
or navy was not large 2 . So far as the official attitude and
statements were concerned, no meeting failed to maintain the

1 The definition of "noncombatant" was left to the President, and decisions
to exemption boards, whose decisions often conflicted and were far from uniform.
The records of the treatment of the conscientious objectors by exemption boards,
military courts, and above all in the military prisons make a sad page in American
history.

' The accredited number was greater from the fact that up to 1902 birthright
membership was universal among the Friends, and, consequently, in 1017 there were
many nominal members who, nevertheless, were reckoned as Friends.

40 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

Friends' historic attitude against war, and in favor of peaceful
methods in the settlement of differences international, national,
and social.

As soon as war was declared in 1914, the British Friends,
as in the Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71, at once formed
organizations for relief work. An ambulance unit for the
rescue and care of the wounded; a reconstruction unit for the
aid of devastated districts; a committee for helping innocent
aliens, especially women and children; a war victims' relief
committee, and others. While France was the chief field,
Italy, Serbia, Russia, and other countries were also fields of
work. This earnest, self-sacrificing, unpaid labor was often
carried on under difficult and extremely dangerous condi-
tions.

American Friends contributed funds to help their British
brethren, but when the United States entered the war in April,
1917, it was felt that personal aid and service were called for.
Accordingly late in April, 191 7, the American Friends' Service
Committee was organized. All calling themselves Friends
were invited to take part. The response was general, and
members of all groups had place on the executive committee.
For the first time since 1828 all those calling themselves
Friends united harmoniously in a common service. When
the Five Years' Meeting convened in the autumn of 191 7 the
committee was officially recognized by the appointment of
representatives on it. It was concluded to work with English
Friends, and later, in addition, to be attached to the civilian
branch of the American Red Cross. An appeal brought large
funds and called forth earnest workers. As the work developed
it naturally was divided into groups which it may be worth
while to mention: emergency work, such as assisting persons
out of the danger zones and providing for their needs; agri-
cultural, providing labor, machinery, seeds, personal service;
building — such as constructing temporary houses in devastated
districts; miscellaneous — providing maternity and other hos-

THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS IN AMERICA 41

pitals, and factories for making portable houses and furniture,
establishing co-operative stores, etc. Except necessary office
work and that connected with transportation, none of the
workers received any pay except a simple maintenance and
their necessary traveling expenses. It will give some idea of
the extent of the work to state that in three years, to May
31, 1920, the total number of American workers was 645,
mostly men, and the total contributions $2,329,868. 19. 1

This relief and reconstruction work received the approval
of the United States War Department, the French govern-
ment, and the American Red Cross, and is a complete answer
to the charge frequently made during the war that pacifists
must be unpatriotic and slackers.

So far as known this is the only work of the kind by a
religious organization begun during the war and carried on
without interruption ever since. The work in France, with
the exception of the erection of a maternity hospital, has just been
discontinued (July, 1920), but has gone on in Central Europe,
Poland, Serbia, and elsewhere. In January, 1920, Herbert C.
Hoover turned over to the American Friends' Service
Committee the work of distribution of relief for the needy
women and children of Germany. 2

The Friends have participated in the Interchurch Move-
ment, and moreover, antedating this, have carried on a For-
ward Movement of their own to sustain and extend the
interests, spiritual and material, of their own denomination.

Education has always been highly valued, and schools,
when they have been needed, have been maintained since an
early date. But for a long period higher education was viewed

1 Seventy-five workers were Mennonite conscientious objectors, turned over by
the United States War Department for noncombatant service. Of the contributions
$276,115.86 were contributed by the Mennonite Board of Missions; almost all the
rest by Friends.

"At last accounts (July, 1920) 632,300 children are given one meal per day in
eighty-eight cities in Germany. It is expected this feeding must be continued another
year, though perhaps not on so extensive a scale.

42 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

with distrust. The feeling, however, has long passed away,
and at present the Society maintains seven colleges, one in
the East, four in the Middle West, and two on the Pacific
Coast. Haverford, Pennsylvania, though not officially con-
nected with the Society, is owned and controlled by members.
All the institutions, elementary, secondary, and higher, rank
well in the classes to which they belong. Their interests
are fostered by the General Board of Education of the Five
Years' Meeting.

As is well known, Friends have always been in the van
in the cause of temperance, and have been active in the anti-
saloon and prohibition movements.

The harmonious co-operation of the different groups in the
European relief work has frequently suggested the question
whether it will not bring about a closer union. It may be
said in reply that, so far as can be seen, it is very unlikely,
for too great differences in doctrine still exist to make a church
union desirable. But it has taught many that kindly feeling
and much co-operation are quite possible even when there is
great difference of opinion on important matters.

Passing for a moment to the Hicksite and Conservative
groups, it may be said of the former that the members have
been active in philanthropic and social work. Great atten-
tion has been paid to education. Their excellent schools and
Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania, a co-educational institution,
have received hearty support. By means of biennial confer-
ences, representing the whole group, the membership has been
kept in touch with all movements of interest to the body and
enabled to share more fully in whatever efforts may be made.
There has been a constant tendency to greater freedom in
doctrine and practice. Within the past few years recording
of ministers and appointment of elders have practically ceased,
and the tendency is toward the greatest possible democracy
in the church organization. Notwithstanding these and other
efforts and the institution of an active Young Friends'

THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS IN AMERICA 43

Movement the decrease in membership has not yet been
arrested. 1

The Conservatives have kept the even tenor of their way
repeating very nearly the quietism of the eighteenth century,
and showing little missionary interest. Their membership,
as nearly as can be ascertained, also shows a decline. Both
groups have joined heartily in the relief and reconstruction
work, and have representation on the executive committee
of the American Friends' Service Committee.

A conference representing all, the world over, who call
themselves Friends, was held in London, England, in
August, 1920. The object of this gathering was to discuss
matters of common interest, especially means for furthering
the cause of peace, international, national, social, and economic,
and to consider what part the Friends should take in the effort.
Notwithstanding the diverse elements, and different nationali-
ties represented, the conference was harmonious. Several
addresses were issued and the general effect has been to
bring all Friends into closer fellowship.

Such is a brief review of the history of Quakerism. What
can be said of its present condition and tendencies ? Let us
return to the consideration of the Orthodox body with which
we are especially concerned. Problems of peculiar difficulty
ace a small denomination spread over a wide expanse of
country. Differences of environment, education, outlook,
far more than in a large denomination, have an influence
antagonistic to a close union. It is emphatically so with the
Friends. That they have held together as closely as they
have, is more remarkable than that there should be, here and
there, disintegrating influences at work. Some members in
the Middle West and more on the Pacific Coast view with
concern the greater liberality in matters of doctrine, and the

1 This may be partly due to the concentration of the membership, as more than
half belongs to Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Hicksite), and about three-fourths to
Philadelphia and Baltimore Yearly Meetings (Hicksite).

44 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

willingness to join in relief and other work with those they do
not consider evangelical. They also lay great stress on
written statements of religious doctrine, and fail to see that
Friends in placing emphasis on life rather than on creed are
simply maintaining their historic attitude, and taking their
place alongside of those increasing numbers in other denomi-
nations who, while holding fast the essentials of Christian
faith, believe that a life of Christian service is more important
than subscription to a formal creed or a written statement of
faith. Such dissident members are few in comparison with
the membership at large and are scarcely likely to increase
greatly in number. It is, however, recognized that there is a
serious danger that, in devoting thought and effort to external
service, the spiritual may not receive that close attention
which is essential to all work professed to be carried out on a
Christian basis. It is a fundamental of the Quaker faith that
nothing can take the place of a personal spiritual experience.
In common with other denominations, the problem of the
ministry is a serious one. That there is need for an intelligent,
educated service is unquestionable; zeal, earnest exhortation,
or both combined are not sufficient. How can the need be met
without conflicting with the historic position of the body as to
the necessity of a divine call, sometimes immediate, and
"the priesthood of all believers" ? Is it practicable, amid the
legitimate demands of modern life, for members to devote the
necessary time to ministerial and pastoral work? Can any
considerable number of men and women of ability be expected
to devote their lives or a great part of them to a work in which
but a meager income for years and small prospect for the future
is all that can be looked for ? Various efforts have been made
to meet certain phases of the question. Some Friends, a
number of years ago, instituted a Bible Training School for
ministers and Christian workers; but it cannot be said that
the results have been satisfactory to the body at large, for
the tendency has been toward the creation of a ministerial

THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS IN AMERICA 45

class, inelastic methods, and a narrow outlook. A School for
Social and Religious Education, much less formal, intended
rather for Christian workers, has also been in operation for
a few years. Another method has been to introduce into the
college curriculum, for those who feel called to the ministry or
Christian work, courses on the Bible, church history, sociology,
psychology, and practical ways of church service. Still more
recently, a well-endowed graduate school has been opened,
offering instruction in "biblical literature, philosophy, sociol-
ogy, history, and kindred subjects. " Whether these later ef-
forts will bring about adequate results remains to be seen,
but it cannot be questioned that the last three methods are
more in accord with fundamental Quakerism than the first.

Notwithstanding the local differences mentioned above,
the Friends have never been more closely united than at
present; their foreign-mission work has never been more
extensive or better organized; nor has greater practical interest
been taken in education, more interest in social and neighbor-
hood betterment, more extended or deeper spiritual interest
among the younger members; and, while the old revivalist
methods have fallen largely into disuse, there is a genuine
evangelistic spirit of outreaching and upbuilding very general
throughout the body. To these must be added the extensive
relief and reconstruction work or "service of love," as it has
been called, in which all the Friends have been engaged since
191 7. It is impossible to overestimate the importance of this
service. Taken up originally with the simple desire to aid
those suffering from the war, and to show that pacifists were
not necessarily shirkers of service, this self-sacrificing, volun-
tary labor has developed and extended into an almost inter-
national work. Great trust and responsibility have been
placed, unasked, upon the Friends, and their name has become
known far and wide in this connection. There is also a
prospect of the continuance of this or similar work both at
home and abroad.

46 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

That the reaction of recent movements within the Society
has already been great is evident; what it will be in the future
it is too soon to predict. One effect of the war and the relief
service has been to lead many not only to examine more fully
into the grounds of their religious belief, an examination to
which the Young Friends' Movement has contributed in no
small degree, but also to see what part the Friends should take
in the effort to strengthen Christian faith and rebuild society
on a Christian basis. Moreover, national and world con-
ditions seem to call, as never before, from the Friends for a
greater service, not only in definitely religious work, but also
in the fields of labor adjustment and social betterment and
uplift, a service for which their democratic Christian organi-
zation, their emphasis on positive good-will, and their simple
religious faith would seem peculiarly to fit them.

The Friends, like the other churches, are thus facing serious
problems both internal and external, the solution of which is
still unknown and in the future; but to adopt the words of
another, 1 "They look forward with courage and confidence,
believing that the good hand of God which has been over them
in blessing in the past is still guiding them and will continue to
lead them into larger service for him who is the Master of us
all."

1 Professor Williston Walker regarding the Congregationalists in the American
Journal of Theology, XXIV, 18.